Russian Diving

Development of hydraulic engineering, river and sea transport, building and use of harbours – all this needs underwater work carried out. In the vast majority of cases work cannot be done without a person going under water.

In the past, divers undertook simple tasks. Although those professional divers could hold their breaths and stay under water for 2 – 3 minutes, their ability to do under water work was limited.

As the demand for diving increased, attempts were made to extend the time a diver can spend under water. First diving devices were primitive: a diver took a weight and a leather bag full of air that allowed him to inhale a few times under water. Later on a diving bell was invented. It did not have a bottom and was lowered into water with a diver in it (Fig. 1). However, even this did not increase effectiveness of underwater work sufficiently.

Fig. 1 Diving bell

With technical advances and an increased need for diving, attempts were made to produce special equipment extending time a diver could stay under water.

In terms of diving equipment inventions, Russia was in many cases ahead of more economically developed countries. The first diving equipment (Fig. 2) was suggested in 1719 by a self-taught inventor Efim Nikonov. It consisted of a leather suit, barrel with air and weights. It allowed a diver to move under water independently. However, the small amount of air let a diver stay under water only for a short time. The diver could only descent to very small depths.

Fig. 2. Diving equipment by Efim Nikonov

1 – barrel; 2 – weight, 3 – leather trousers, 4 – leather coat, 5 – glass window (port).

Klinger’s diving equipment (1797) was more sophisticated. It had a metal hat with clothes attached to it. Clothes were made of a waterproof material. To help a diver breathe, two leather tubes were attached to the hat. The leather tubes had ‘inhaling’ and ‘exhaling’ valves. Because the equipment was primitive, a diver could only work at depths of no more than 2 –3 metres.

Diving jobs at large depths became possible when in 1929 a Russian mechanic Gausen created his new equipment. Gausen’s equipment (Fig. 3) consisted of a copper helmet, held onto the diver by a metal bar. The air was supplied into the helmet from the surface. A suit made of waterproof material protected the diver’s body. This equipment was used extensively and modifications were made. It was used in the Russian Navy until 1870s.

Figure 3 Gausen’s diving equipment:

1 – metal helmet; 2 – hose; 3 – metal bar; 4 – watertight suit

In 1853, V. Vshivcev a Russian inventor constructed an original self-contained apparatus with a breathing tube, inhalation and exhalation valves. This apparatus allowed descents only to very small depths. However, the system of air supply and removal was used in new types of equipment.

In 1871, engineer A.N. Lodygin suggested a first in history self-contained breathing apparatus that worked on an artificial mixture of gases (oxygen and hydrogen). It had a device that obtained the gases from water and an absorbed carbonic acid. Though Lodygin’s apparatus was never built, his idea lived on and an artificial mixture of gases is still used in diving.

A bit later, in 1873, midshipman Khotinsky created an apparatus working on compressed air and oxygen.

In 1882 a diving school was founded in Kronshtadt. It became the first scientific diving centre. Over the years, the teachers of the school invented a diving telephone, a diving pump and an underwater light. The diving equipment was improved and serious medical research on diving was undertaken. The graduates of the school were highly professional divers and could work at depths of up to 50 or 60 metres.

In 1923, a department for special underwater works was set up. In the 1930s, the divers from this department reached depths of up to 100-110 metres. During that time a self-contained diving equipment for descents to depths of up to 20 metres was created. This equipment was very similar to modern equipment of this type.

The diving equipment created by the department for special underwater works together with scientifically improved ways of descent, withstood the test of the Second World War when divers had to undertake numerous tasks under water.

After the war, diving became a widespread profession. Divers were needed in military service and different other areas. Nowadays light diving is particularly popular.

Improvements were made to the oxygen light-diving equipment that had been created before the Second World War. In addition, a new type of equipment ‘with entry into water’ was introduced. All these developments increased the opportunities for underwater work.

Self-contained equipment ‘with entry into water’ created in 1957 – 1958 is much easier to use than other types of equipment. It, therefore, allows descents of less skilled light divers. In addition, this equipment in a special set allows swimming under water, which makes a light diver mobile and facilitates execution of certain tasks involving under water movement.

Before describing the basics of diving and diving equipment, lets list available types of diving equipment. Classification of diving equipment can be carried out according to different characteristics: its purpose, depth of descent etc. However, accepted classification is according to provision for a diver’s breathing. I would like to clarify that diving equipment includes objects that are put on a diver for descent into water, while objects and devices that support this descent are called ‘diving machinery’. Parts of the equipment that form watertight and gastight coating make a diving suit.

According to the type of breathing provision, diving equipment is divided into the following types: ventilated equipment, equipment with entrance into water (non self-contained and self-contained), regeneration equipment, helium-oxygen injector- regeneration equipment and hard diving suits.

Ventilated equipment is most commonly used for work at 60-80 metres. Compressed air is fed into the diver’s helmet from the surface. Ventilation happens periodically when the diver presses onto a valve through which the exhaled air is eased out of the helmet into water. This type of equipment is fairly heavy. It involves the use of heavy pumps and compressors.

Equipment with entry into water can be self-contained and non self-contained. Non self-contained equipment of this type is designed for descents to different depths (up to 40 metres) depending on equipment type. Air from the surface is supplied through the hose but not into the helmet but towards a ‘breathing machine’. The ‘breathing machine’ feeds it to a diver in portions big enough for one breath. The diver exhales directly into water. This system is the best because it prevents the large concentration of carbon dioxide occurring in the helmet. A set of this equipment is much lighter than a set of ventilated equipment.

Self-contained equipment with entry into water has the same breathing provision as non self-contained. However, air is supplied not from the surface but from a cylinder of a breathing apparatus. In this equipment, descent is possible to depths of up to 40 metres but a diver cannot spend a long time at these depths.

Regeneration equipment is designed for descents of up to 20 metres. It is self-contained and has a breathing apparatus with a ‘closed-loop’ breathing provision. Oxygen is supplied from a cylinder. Exhaled gas mixture is recycled. First, it is purified (carbon dioxide is removed) and then it is fed back into the breathing system.

Helium-oxygen injector-regeneration equipment is used for descents to large depths. The design is complex because it involves simultaneous supply of oxygen/helium mixture from the surface through a hose and circulation of this mixture in order to be purified (During purification carbon dioxide is removed).

Hard diving suits isolate a diver from the outer water pressure. It is a unique characteristic of this equipment. Breathing occurs under normal pressure with oxygen supplied from cylinders. There is a simultaneous circulation of gas mixture for purification (removal of carbon dioxide). These diving suits are cumbersome and their design is complex. The equipment has a major disadvantage - imperfect hinge joints that hamper underwater work. At depths of 100-150 metres, it is almost impossible to do any work.

Diving equipment that does not have a hard helmet and does not have big buoyancy, which needs to be countered with a big weight, is called light diving equipment. It includes all the types of regeneration and self-contained equipment with entry into water. According to its certain characteristics, non self-contained equipment with entry into water is closer to light diving equipment. In this book, it will be considered together with other types of light diving equipment.

Because of its small weight and size, light diving equipment can be used in different conditions. However, in particularly hard conditions, a possibility of carrying out underwater tasks in it is reduced in comparison with ventilated equipment.

This textbook is edited by the diving expert G.N. Meshalov. The author is also grateful to the Dr.Z.S.Gusinsky, PhD (Medicine) for looking through the draft and his useful comments.

An early diver in A.D.Stupin’s ‘In the Underwater Kingdom’ published in 1905